PEEPS: A Relational Framework for Incorporating Resilience Into Community-Based Programming for Youth
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2022.1102Keywords:
Youth, resilience, community, program, trainingAbstract
Youth in communities across the world are exposed to adversity and trauma at high levels. In this article, we describe a research-informed, resilience-promoting framework that can be incorporated into a variety of touch points for youth (e.g., school, family, community, extra-curricular activities). The PEEPS Framework is relational in nature and includes the following five interconnected components: (a) positive adult relationships, (b) esteem, (c) empathy, (d) peer relationships, and (e) strengths-based approach. We outline the research that supports each component, describe how we are currently implementing the PEEPS framework in the form of a volunteer training, and offer research-based suggestions for implementation and tools that other professionals can utilize.
References
Anda, R., Felitti, V., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., Dube, S. R., & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(3), 174-186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4
Anser, M. K., Yousaf, Z., Khan, M. A., Nassani, A. A., Alotaibi, S. M., Abro, M. M. Q., Vo, X. V., & Zaman, K. (2020). Does communicable diseases (including COVID-19) may increase global poverty risk? A cloud on the horizon. Environmental Research, 187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109668
Bagley, S. M., Hadland, S. E., & Yule, A. M. (2020). A commentary on the impact of COVID-19 on engagement of youth with substance use and co-occurring psychiatric disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/j.jsat.2020.108175
Beers, L. S., Szilagyi, M., Seigel, W. M., Davis, W. S., Fukuda, Y., Joseph, M., Wright, J. L., & Goza, S. H. (2021). Immunizing against hate: overcoming Asian American and Pacific Islander racism. Pediatrics, 148(1). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-051836
Bellis, M. A., Hughes, K., Leckenby, N., Jones, L., Baban, A., Kachaeva, M., Povilaitis, R., Pudule, I., Qirjako, G., Ulukol, B., Raleva, M, & Terzic, N. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences and associations with health-harming behaviors in young adults: surveys in eight eastern European countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 92, 641-655. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.13.129247
Belsky, J., Bell, B., Bradley, R. H., Stallard, N. Stewart-Brown S. L. (2007). Socioeconomic risk, parenting during the preschool years and child health age 6 years. European Journal of Public Health, 17(5), 508-513. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckl261
Bethell, C., Jones, J., Gombojav, N., Linkenback, & Sege, R. (2019). Positive childhood experiences and adult mental and relational health in a statewide sample: Associations across adverse childhood experiences levels. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(11) e193007. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3007
Bethell, C. D., Newacheck, P., Hawes, E., & Halfon, N. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences: Assessing the impact on health and school engagement and the mitigating role of resilience. Health Affairs, 33(12), 2106-2115. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2014.0914
Boat, A. A., Syvertsen A. K., & Eisenberg, C. (2021). The state of relationships: Young people’s relationships with adults in Minnesota schools and out-of-school time programs. [Insights & Evidence Series]. Minneapolis: Search Institute. Report for the Carlson Family Foundation.
Boat, A., Sethi, J., Eisenberg, C., & Chamberlain, R. (2020). “It was a support network system that made me believe in myself:” Understanding youth and young adults’ experiences of social capital in six innovative programs. (Report to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation). Search Institute.
Booth, M. Z., & Gerard, J. M. (2011). Self-esteem and academic achievement: A comparative study of adolescent students in England and the United States. Compare, 41(5), 629-648. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2011.566688
Bruce, M., & Bridgeland, J. (2014). The mentoring effect: Young people’s perspectives on the outcomes and availability of mentoring. Civic Enterprises with Hart Research Associates for MENTOR: The National Mentoring Partnership.
Campbell-Sills, L., Cohan, S. L., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Relationship of resilience to personality, coping, and psychiatric symptoms in young adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 585-599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.05.001
Cantor, P., Osher, D., Berg, J., Steyer, L., & Rose, T. (2019). Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1. Applied Developmental Science, 23(4), 307-337. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2017.1398649
Caprara, G. V., Luengo Kanacri, B. P., Gerbino, M., Zuffiano, A., Alessandri G., Vecchio, G., Caprara, E., Pastorelli, C., & Bridgall, B. (2014). Positive effects of promoting prosocial behavior in early adolescence: Evidence from a school-based intervention. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(4), 386-396. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025414531464
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Youth risk behavior survey data. Available at: www.cdc.gob/yrbs
Changing Our World, Inc. (2011). National mentoring programs survey report. MENTOR: The National Mentoring Partnership.
Collishaw, S., Pickles, A., Messer, J., Rutter, M., Shearer, C., & Maughan, B. (2007). Resilience to adult psychopathology following childhood maltreatment: Evidence from a community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 211-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.02.004
Corcoran, M., & McNulty, M. (2018). Examining the role of attachment in the relationship between childhood adversity, psychological distress and subjective well-being. Child Abuse & Neglect, 76, 297-309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.11.012
Cronholm, P. F., Forke, C. M., Wade, R., Bair-Merritt, M. H., Davis, M., Harkins-Schwarz, M., Pachter, L. M., Fein, J. A. (2015). Adverse childhood experiences: Expanding the concept of adversity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 49(3), 354-361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.02.001
Crooks, C. V., Chiodo, D., Thomas, D., & Hughes, R. (2010). Strengths-based programming for First Nation youth in schools: Building engagement through healthy relationships and leadership skills. International Journal of Mental Health Addiction, 8, 160-173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-009-9242-0
Crouch, E., Radcliff, E., Merrell, M. A., & Bennett, K. J. (2020). Rural-urban differences in positive childhood experiences across a national sample. The Journal of Rural Health, 37, 495-503. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12493
Duong, M. T., Bruns, E. J., Lee, K., Cox, S., Coifman, J., Mayworm, A., Lyon, A. R. (2020). Rates of mental health service utilization by children and adolescents in schools and other common service settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 48, 420–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-020-01080-9
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245-258.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
Finkelhor, D., Shattuck, A., Turner, H., Hamby, S. (2015). A revised inventory of adverse childhood experiences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 13-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.07.011
Gallup. (2021). CliftonStrengths for students. https://www.strengthsquest.com/home.aspx
Garringer, M., McQuillin, S., McDaniel, H. (2017). Examining youth mentoring services across America: Findings from the 2016 National Mentoring Program survey. MENTOR: The National Mentoring Partnership. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18166.70728
Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Burrow, A. L., & Cunningham, J. A. (2012). A cultural-asset framework for investigating successful adaptation to stress in African American youth. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 264-271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00236.x
Gobin, R. L. & Freyd, J. J. (2014). The impact of betrayal trauma on the tendency to trust. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(5), 505-511. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032452
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10(3), 243-268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.10.3.243
Gottman Institute. (2020). The Gottman Institute: A research-based approach to relationships. https://www.gottman.com/
Grossman, J. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2002). The test of time: Predictors and effects of duration in youth mentoring relationships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 199-219. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014680827552
Hambrick, E. P., Brawner, T. W., Perry, B. D., Brandt, K., Hofmeister, C., & Collins, J. O. (2019). Beyond the ACE score: Examining relationships between timing of developmental adversity, relational health and developmental outcomes in children. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 33, 238-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2018.11.001
Harvard School of Education, Making Caring Common Project. (2021). 5 tips for cultivating empathy. https://mcc.gse.harvard.edu/resources-for-families/5-tips-cultivating-empathy
Hollingsworth, L. A., Didelot, M. J., & Smith, J. O. (2003). REACH beyond tolerance: A framework for teaching children empathy and responsibility. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education, and Development, 42, 139-151. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-490X.2003.tb00002.x
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Milton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health, 2, e356-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4
Isobel, S., Meehan, F., & Pretty, D. (2016). An emotional awareness based parenting group for parents with mental illness: A mixed methods feasibility study of community mental health nurse facilitation. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 30, 34-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2015.10.007
Joyce, S., Shand, F., Tighe, J., Laurent, S. J., Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, S. B. (2018). Road to resilience: A systematic review and meta-analysis of resilience training programmes and interventions. BMJ Open, 8(6), e017858. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-017858
Karcher, M.J. (2005a). Cross-age peer mentoring. In D. L. DuBois & M. J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring. (pp. 266–285). Sage.
Karcher, M.J. (2005b). The effects of school-based developmental mentoring and mentors’ attendance on mentees’ self-esteem, behavior, and connectedness. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 65-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20025
Karcher, M. J., Kuperminc, G. P., Portwood, S. G., Sipe, C. L., Taylor, A. (2006). Mentoring programs: A framework to inform program development, research and evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(6), 709-725. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2002.tb01336.x
King, K. A., Vidourek, R. A., Davis, B., McClellan, W. (2002). Increasing self-esteem and school connectedness through a multidimensional mentoring program. Journal of School Health, 72(7), 294-299.
Kuller, R., Marcelin, J. R., Swartz, T. H., Piggott, D. A., Gil, R. M., Mathew, T. A., & Tan, T. (2020). Racial disparity of coronavirus disease 2019 in African American communities. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 222, 890-893. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa372
Lawson, M., Piel, M. H., & Simon, M. (2020). Child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic: Consequences of parental job loss on psychological and physical abuse towards children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 110, 104709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104709
Leventhal, K. S., Gillham, J., DeMaria, L., Andrew, G., Peabody, J., & Leventhal, S. (2015).Building psychosocial assets and wellbeing among adolescent girls: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Adolescence, 45, 284-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.09.011
Liu, J. J., Ein, N., Gervasio, J., Battaion, M., Reed, M., & Vickers, K. (2020). Comprehensive meta-analysis of resilience interventions. Clinical Psychology Review, 82, 101919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101919
Lopez, P. N. Salovey, P., & Straus, R. (2003). Emotional intelligence, personality, and the perceived quality of social relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(3), 641-658. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00242-8
Lorenc, T., Lester, S., Sutcliffe, K., Stansfield, C., & Thomas, J. (2020). Interventions to support people exposed to adverse childhood experiences: Systematic review of systematic reviews. BMC Public Health, 20(657), 1-10. https://doi.org/10/1186/s12889-020-08789-0
Madden, W., Green, S., & Grant, A. M. (2020). A pilot study evaluating strengths‐based coaching for primary school students: Enhancing engagement and hope. In J. Passmore & D. Tee (Eds.), Coaching researched: A coaching psychology reader, pp. 297-312. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119656913.ch16
Malti, T., Chaparro, M. P., Zuffiano, A., & Colasante, T. (2016). School-based interventions to promote empathy-related responding in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(6), 718-731. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1121822
Marie-Mitchell, A., & Kostolansky, R. (2019). A systematic review of trials to improve child outcomes associated with adverse childhood experiences. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 56(5), 756-764. https://doi.org/10.1016/jamepre.2018.11.030
Masonbrink, A. R., & Hurley, E. (2020). Advocating for children during the COVID-19 school closures. Pediatrics,146(3), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-1440
Merriam Webster. (n.d.). Esteem. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/esteem
Mineo, L. (2017). Good genes are nice, but joy is better. Harvard Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2017/04/over-nearly-80-years-harvard-study-has-been-showing-how-to-live-a-healthy-and-happy-life/
Osher, D., Cantor, P., Berg, J., Steyer, L., & Rose, T. (2020a). Drivers of human development: How relationships and context shape learning and development. Applied Developmental Science, 24(1), 6-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2017.1398650
Osher, D., Pittman, K., Young, J., Smith, H., Moroney, D., & Irby, M. (2020b). Thriving, robust equity, and transformative learning & development: A more powerful conceptualization of the contributors to youth success. American Institutes for Research and Forum for Youth Investment. https://forumfyi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Thriving.Equity.Learning.Report.pdf
Pashak, T.J., Handal, P.J., & Scales, P.C. (2020). Positive Development on Campus: Investigating the Psychometric Properties of the College Assets Measurement Profile for Undergraduate Students. Journal of College Student Development 61(4), 474-491. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2020.0052
Pereda, N. A., & Diaz-Faes, D. A. (2020). Family violence against children in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic: A review of current perspectives and risk factors. Child Adolescent Psychiatry Mental Health, 14(40), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-020-00347-1
Prime, H., Wade, M., & Browne, D. T. (2020). Risk and resilience in family well-being during the COVID pandemic. American Psychologist, 75(5), 631-645. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000660
Rhodes, J. E., & DuBois, D. L. (2006). Understanding and facilitating the youth mentoring movement. Social Policy Report, 20(3), 3-19. https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/j.2379-3988.2006.tb00048.x
Scales, P. C., Pekel, K., Sethi, J., Chamberlain, R., & Van Boekel, M. (2020). Academic Year changes in student-teacher developmental relationships and their linkage to middle and high school students’ motivation: A mixed methods study. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 40(4), 499-536. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431619858414
Schonert-Reichl, K. (2013). Promoting empathy in school-aged children: Current state of the field and implications for research and practice. In K. Nader (Ed.), School rampage shootings and other youth disturbances (pp. 159-203). Routledge.
Search Institute. (2020). Developmental relationships. www.searchinstitute.org
Sethi, J., & Scales, P. C. (2020). Developmental relationships and school success: How teachers, parents, and friends affect educational outcomes and what actions students say matter most. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 63, 101904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101904
Singh, S., Roy, D., Sinha, K., Parveen, S., Sharma, G., & Joshi, G. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 and lockdown on mental health of children and adolescents: A narrative review with recommendations. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113429
Sipe, C. & Roder, A. (1999). Mentoring school-age children: A classification of programs. Public/Private Ventures.
Spencer, R. (2006). Understanding the mentoring process between adolescents and adults. Youth & Society, 37(3), 287-315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558405278263
Strolin-Goltzman, J., Woodhouse, V., Suter, J., Werrbach, M. (2016). A mixed method study on educational well-being and resilience among youth in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 70, 30-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.08.014
Suzuki, S. L., Geffner, R., & Bucky, S. F. (2008). The experiences of adults exposed to intimate partner violence as children: An exploratory qualitative study of resilience and protective factor. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 8(1-2), 103-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926790801984523
Ungar, M., & Liebenberg, L. (2011). Assessing resilience across cultures using mixed methods: Construction of the child and youth resilience measure. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 5(2), 126-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689811400607
World Health Organization. (2020). Child maltreatment. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment
Youth.gov. (n.d.). Positive youth development. https://youth.gov/youth-topics/positive-youth-development
Zolkoski, S. M. & Bullock, L. M. (2012). Resilience in children and youth: A review. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 2295-2303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.08.009
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- The Author retains copyright in the Work, where the term “Work” shall include all digital objects that may result in subsequent electronic publication or distribution.
- Upon acceptance of the Work, the author shall grant to the Publisher the right of first publication of the Work.
- The Author shall grant to the Publisher and its agents the nonexclusive perpetual right and license to publish, archive, and make accessible the Work in whole or in part in all forms of media now or hereafter known under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License or its equivalent, which, for the avoidance of doubt, allows others to copy, distribute, and transmit the Work under the following conditions:
- Attribution—other users must attribute the Work in the manner specified by the author as indicated on the journal Web site;
- The Author is able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the nonexclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the Work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), as long as there is provided in the document an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post online a prepublication manuscript (but not the Publisher’s final formatted PDF version of the Work) in institutional repositories or on their Websites prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work. Any such posting made before acceptance and publication of the Work shall be updated upon publication to include a reference to the Publisher-assigned DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and a link to the online abstract for the final published Work in the Journal.
- Upon Publisher’s request, the Author agrees to furnish promptly to Publisher, at the Author’s own expense, written evidence of the permissions, licenses, and consents for use of third-party material included within the Work, except as determined by Publisher to be covered by the principles of Fair Use.
- The Author represents and warrants that:
- the Work is the Author’s original work;
- the Author has not transferred, and will not transfer, exclusive rights in the Work to any third party;
- the Work is not pending review or under consideration by another publisher;
- the Work has not previously been published;
- the Work contains no misrepresentation or infringement of the Work or property of other authors or third parties; and
- the Work contains no libel, invasion of privacy, or other unlawful matter.
- The Author agrees to indemnify and hold Publisher harmless from Author’s breach of the representations and warranties contained in Paragraph 6 above, as well as any claim or proceeding relating to Publisher’s use and publication of any content contained in the Work, including third-party content.
Revised 7/16/2018. Revision Description: Removed outdated link.