Competitive Readiness: Developmental Considerations to Promote Positive Youth Development in Competitive Activities

Authors

  • Jillian Kochanek Michigan State University
  • Alysha Matthews Michigan State University
  • Emily Wright Michigan State University
  • Justin DiSanti Michigan State University
  • Michelle Neff Michigan State University
  • Karl Erickson Michigan State University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2019.671

Keywords:

competitive readiness, youth development, competition

Abstract

Competitive experiences have the potential to empower youth. Understanding the conditions under which young people can grow through competition is necessary to identify how competitive experiences can optimally support youth as engaged participants and people. This paper serves as a novel integration of previous research aimed toward practitioners. The purpose of this paper is to provide adult (and youth) leaders with empirically-based, practically meaningful guidance to integrate practices that support competitive readiness for youth development. To clarify the youth competitive readiness debate, this paper adopts a process-oriented, developmental perspective. We first define and provide background on youth development. Second, we put forth guiding postulates and their application to practice for organized competitive experiences for positive youth development promotion. We argue that youth are “ready” to compete not just when they can survive competitive experiences, but thrive through them. Interactions between individual, contextual, and developmental factors over time influence fluctuations in a young person’s state of competitive readiness. In this way, competitive readiness is an ongoing process that encompasses the individual needs of the child in relation to the environment.

Author Biographies

Jillian Kochanek, Michigan State University

Jill Kochanek is a doctoral student in Kinesiology at Michigan State University's Institute for the Study of Youth Sport (ISYS). Jill received her master’s in Kinesiology with a concentration in sport psychology from the University of Minnesota, where she studied positive youth development through sport. Her current research focuses how coaches can guide athletes to take charge of their own developmental process and social progress. 

 

Alysha Matthews, Michigan State University

Alysha is a master’s student in Kinesiology who studies coaching in youth sport at Michigan State University’s Institute for the Study of Youth Sport. Her interests include interpersonal relationships, self-regulation, and coach effectiveness. She is specifically interested in the social and emotional dynamics of the coach-athlete relationship. 

Emily Wright, Michigan State University

Emily is a doctoral student in Kinesiology at Michigan State University’s Institute for the Study of Youth Sport. She received her bachelor’s degree in psychology with a minor in kinesiology from Penn State University, and her master’s degree in sport psychology from Miami University (Ohio). Her research interests include talent development and sport specialization with a primary focus on parents and youth sport athletes in this context. 

Justin DiSanti, Michigan State University

Justin is a doctoral student in Kinesiology at Michigan State University’s Institute for the Study of Youth Sport. He earned his bachelor's degrees in Psychology and Kinesiology from Penn State University before moving on to Miami University (Ohio) for his master's degree in sport psychology. His research interests include talent development and sport specialization, particularly in the youth and high school sport contexts.

Michelle Neff, Michigan State University

Michelle is an Extension Educator with Michigan State University Extension and has provided leadership on a variety of programs that center around 4-H, families and youth.  She currently works in the Preparing Michigan’s Children and Youth Institute and focuses on life skills development, healthy living, and working with 4-H Cloverbuds

Karl Erickson, Michigan State University

Dr. Erickson is a faculty member at the Institute for the Study of Youth Sport (ISYS) at Michigan State University's department of Kinesiology. His research focuses on athlete development and coaching in youth sport, and is primarily concerned with understanding youth sport as a context for personal development. His work integrates sport psychology, developmental science, and public health with a particular emphasis on how interpersonal processes associated with participation in sport (such as coach and peer interactions) influence psychosocial, health and performance development outcomes.

References

Aicinena, S. (1992). Youth sport readiness: A predictive model for success. ProQuest, 49, 58-66.

Amorose, A. J., & Anderson-Butcher, D. (2007). Autonomy-supportive coaching and self-determined motivation in high school and college athletes: A test of self-determination theory. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8(5), 654-670. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.11.003

Barnett, N. P., Smoll, F. L., & Smith, R. E. (1992). Effects of enhancing coach-athlete relationships on youth sport attrition. The Sport Psychologist, 6(2), 111-127. doi:10.1123/tsp.6.2.111

Benson, P. L., & Scales, P. C. (2009). The definition and preliminary measurement of thriving in adolescence. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(1), 85-104. doi:10.1080/17439760802399240

Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Hamilton, S. F., & Sesma, A. (2006). Positive youth development: Theory, research, and applications. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 894–941). New York, NY: Wiley.

Bowers, E. P., Geldhof, G. J., Johnson, S. K., Lerner, J. V., & Lerner, R. M. (2014). Special issue introduction: Thriving across the adolescent years: A view of the issues. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(6), 859-868. doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0117-8

Busseri, M. A., & Rose‐Krasnor, L. (2009). Breadth and intensity: Salient, separable, and developmentally significant dimensions of structured youth activity involvement. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27, 907-933. doi:10.1348/026151008X397017

Choi, H. S., Johnson, B., & Kim, Y. K. (2014). Children’s development through sports competition: Derivative, adjustive, generative, and maladaptive approaches. Quest, 66(2), 191-202. doi:10.1080/00336297.2013.861757

Coakley, J. (2011). Youth sports: What counts as “positive development”? Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 35(3), 306-324. doi:10.1177/0193723511417311

Côté, J. (1999). The influence of the family in the development of talent in sport. The Sport Psychologist, 13(4), 395-417. doi:10.1123/tsp.13.4.395

Côté, J., Lidor, R., & Hackfort, D. (2009). ISSP position stand: To sample or to specialize? Seven postulates about youth sport activities that lead to continued participation and elite performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 7-17. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2009.9671889

Côté, J., & Viermiaa, M. (2014). The developmental model of sport participation: 15 years after its first conceptualization. [Supplement]. Science & Sports, 29, S63-S69. doi:10.1016/j.scispo.2014.08.133

Cumming, S. P., Smoll, F. L., Smith, R. E., & Grossbard, J. R. (2007). Is winning everything? The relative contributions of motivational climate and won-lost percentage in youth sports. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(3), 322-336. doi:10.1080/10413200701342640

Damon, W. (2004). What is positive youth development? Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591(1), 13-24. doi:10.1177/0002716203260092

Daniels, A. M. (2007). Cooperation versus competition: Is there really such an issue? New Directions for Youth Development, 115, 43-56. doi:10.1002/yd.222

Diener, E. (2009). Positive psychology: Past, present, and future. In C. R. Snyder & J. L. Lopez (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 7-11). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195187243.013.0002

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology, 49, 182-185. doi:10.1037/a0012801

Dockett, S. & Perry, B. (2002). Who’s ready for what? Young children starting school. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 3(1), 67-89. doi:10.2304/ciec.2002.3.1.9

Duda, J. L. (2005). Motivation in sport: The relevance of competence and achievement goals. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), The handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 318-335). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Random House.

Eccles, J. S., Barber, B. L., Stone, M., & Hunt, J. (2003). Extracurricular activities and adolescent development. Journal of Social Issues, 59(4), 865-889. doi:10.1046/j.0022-4537.2003.00095.x

Eccles, J. S., & Gootman, J. A. (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Fraser-Thomas, J. L., Côté, J., & Deakin, J. (2005). Youth sport programs: An avenue to foster positive development. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 10, 19-40.

Friedman, H. L. (2013). Playing to win: Raising children in a competitive culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Gibbons, S. L., Ebbeck, V., Concepcion, R. Y., & Li, K. (2010). The impact of an experiential education program on the self-perceptions and perceived social regard of physical education students. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 32(6), 786-804. doi:10.1123/jsep.32.6.786

Gould, D. (2009). The professionalization of youth sports: It’s time to act! Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine, 19(2), 81-82. doi:10.1097/JSM.0b013e31819edaff

Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2008). Life skills development through sport: current status and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1, 58-78. doi:10.1080/17509840701834573

Hamilton, S. F., Hamilton, M. A., & Pittman, K. (2004). Principles for youth development. In S. F. Hamilton & M. A. Hamilton (Eds.), The youth development handbook: Coming of age in American communities (pp. 3-22). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Harris, S. (2000). Readiness to participate in sports. In J. A. Sullivan & S. J. Anderson (Eds.), Care of the young athlete. Rosemont, IL: American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons, American Academy of Pediatrics.

Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Horn, T. S. (2015). Social and psychological developmental perspectives on early sport specialization. Kinesiology Review, 4(3), 248-266. doi:10.1123/kr.2015-0025

Horn, T. S., Glenn, S. D., & Wentzell, A. B. (1993). Sources of information underlying personal ability judgment in high school athletes. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5(3), 263-274. doi:10.1123/pes.5.3.263

Horn, T. S., Lox, C. L., & Labrador, F. (2010). The self-fulfilling prophecy theory: When coaches’ expectations become reality. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 82-108). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Horn, T. S., & Weiss, M. R. (1991). A developmental analysis of children’s self-ability judgments in the physical domain. Pediatric Exercise Science, 3(4), 310-326. doi:10.1123/pes.3.4.310

Keegan, R. J., Spray, C. M., Harwood, C. G., & Lavallee, D. E. (2010). The motivational atmosphere in youth sport: Coach, parent and peer influences on motivation in specializing sport participants. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(1), 87-104. doi:10.1080/10413200903421267

Kenny, D. T., & Osborne, M. S. (2006). Music performance anxiety: New insights from young musicians. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 2(2), 103-112. doi:10.2478/v10053-008-0049-5

Kipp, L. E., & Amorose, A. J. (2008). Perceived motivational climate and self-determined motivation in female high school athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 31(2), 108-129.

Kipp, L. E., & Weiss, M. R. (2013). Social influences, psychological need satisfaction, and well-being among female adolescent gymnasts. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 2(1), 62-75. doi:10.1037/a0030236

Kipp, L. E., & Weiss, M. R. (2015). Social predictors of psychological need satisfaction and well-being among female adolescent gymnasts: A longitudinal analysis. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 4(3), 153-169. doi:10.1037/spy0000033

Kohn, A. (1992). No contest: The case against competition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Larson, R. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist, 55(1), 170-183. doi:10.1037//0003-066X,55.1.170

Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J., Theokas, C., Naudeau, S., Gestsdottir, S., . . . von Eye, A. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth-grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H Study on positive youth development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17-71. doi:10.1177/0272431604272461

Mahoney, J. L., Larson, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Lord, H. (2005). Organized activities as developmental contexts for children and adolescents. In J. L. Mahoney, R. W.Larson, & J. S. Eccles (Eds.), Organized activities as contexts for development: Extracurricular activities, after-school and community programs (pp. 3-22). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Malina, R. M. (2010). Early sport specialization: Roots, effectiveness, and risks. Current Sport Medicine Reports, 9(6), 364-371. doi:10.1249/JSR.0b013e3181fe3166

Malina, R.M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturation, and physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Marsh, H. W., & Peart, N. D. (1988). Competitive and cooperative physical fitness training programs for girls: Effects on physical fitness and multidimensional self-concepts. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10(4), 390-407. doi:10.1123/jsep.10.4.390

Martens, R., & Gill, D. L. (1976). State anxiety among successful and unsuccessful competitors who differ in competitive trait anxiety. Research Quarterly, 47(4), 698-708. doi:10.1080/10671315.1976.10616731

McCullagh, P., & Weiss, M. R. (2002). Observational learning: The forgotten psychological method in sport psychology. In J. L. Van Raalte & B. W. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91(3), 328-346. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328

Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

O’Rourke, D. J., Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Cumming, S. P. (2014). Relations of parent- and coach-initiated motivational climate to youth athletes’ self-esteem, performance anxiety, and autonomous motivation: Who is more influential? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 26(4), 395-408. doi:10.1080/10413200.2014.907838

Passer, M. W. (1988). Psychological issues in determining children’s age-readiness for competition. In F. L. Smith & R. A. Magill, & M. J. Ash (Eds.), Children and youth in sport (3rd ed., pp. 67-77). Campaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Petho, D. A. (2017). The performance success within the competitive equestrian field: A novice and intermediate rider focused investigation. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 12(3proc), S857-S871. doi:10.14198/jhse.2017.12.Proc3.10

Petitpas, A. J., Cornelius, A. E., Van Raalte, J. L., & Jones, T. (2005). A framework for planning youth sport programs that foster psychosocial development. The Sport Psychologist, 19(1), 63-80. doi:10.1123/tsp.19.1.63

Quested, E., & Duda, J. L. (2011). Antecedents of burnout among elite dancers: A longitudinal test of basic needs theory. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(2), 159-167. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.09.003

Reinboth, M., & Duda, J. L. (2006). Perceived motivational climate, need satisfaction and indices of well-being in team sports: A longitudinal perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(3), 269-286. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.06.002

Scanlan, T. K. (1996). Social evaluation and the competition process. In F. L. Smith & R. E. Smoll (Eds.), Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective (pp. 298-308). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.

Scanlan, T. K., & Lewthwaite, R. (1984). Social psychological aspects of competition for male youth sport participants: Predictors of competitive stress. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6(2), 208-226. doi:10.1123/jsp.6.2.208

Scanlan, T. K., & Passer, M. W. (1978). Factors related to competitive stress among male youth sport participants. Medicine and Science in Sports, 10(2), 103-108.

Scanlan, T. K., & Passer, M. W. (1979). Sources of competitive stress in young female athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1(2), 151-159. doi:10.1123/jsp.1.2.151

Shah, S. (2009). Determining a young dancer’s readiness for dancing on pointe. American College of Sports Medicine, 8(6), 295-299. doi:10.1249/JSR.0b013e3181c1ddf1

Shields, D. L. & Bredemeier, B. L. (2009). True competition: A guide to pursuing excellence in sport and society. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Simon, J. A., & Martens, R. (1979). Children’s anxiety in sport and non-sport evaluation activities. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1(2), 160-169. doi:10.1123/jsp.1.2.160

Smith, A. L. (2003). Peer relationships in physical activity contexts: A road less traveled in youth sport and exercise psychology research. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(1), 25-39. doi:10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00015-8

Smith, J. (2013). Peers, pressure, and performance at the national spelling bee. Journal of Human Resources, 48(2), 265-285. doi:10.3368/jhr.48.2.265

Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Cumming, S. P. (2007). Effects of a motivational climate intervention for coaches on young athletes’ sport performance anxiety. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 29(1), 39-59. doi:10.1123/jsep.29.1.39

Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Curtis, B. (1979). Coach effectiveness training: A cognitive-behavioral approach to enhancing relationship skills in youth sport coaches. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1(1), 59-75. doi:10.1123/jsp.1.1.59

Smoll, F. L., Smith, R. E., Barnett, N. P., & Everett, J. J. (1993). Enhancement of children’s self-esteem through social support for youth sport coaches. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 602-610. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.4.602

Stuntz, C. P., & Weiss, M. R. (2010). Motivating children and adolescents to sustain a physically active lifestyle. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 4(5), 433-444. doi:10.1177/1559827610368779

Tauer, J. M. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2004). The effects of cooperation and competition on intrinsic motivation and performance. Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes, 86(6), 849-861. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.6.849

Theeboom, M., De Knop, P., & Weiss, M. R. (1995). Motivational climate, psychological responses, motor skill development in children’s sport: A field-based intervention study. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17(3), 294-311. doi:10.1123/jsep.17.3.294

Vazou, S., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2006). Predicting youth athletes’ motivational indices as a function of their perceptions of the coach- and peer-created climate. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(2), 215-233. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.08.007

Weiss, M. R., Bhalla, J. A., & Price, M. S. (2008). Developing positive self-perceptions through youth sport participation. In H. Hebestreit & O. Bar-Or (Eds.), The young athlete (pp. 302-318). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Weiss, M. R., Ebbeck, V., & Wiese-Bjornstal, D. M. (1993). Developmental and psychological skills related to children’s observational learning of physical skills. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5(4), 301-317. doi:10.1123/pes.5.4.301

Weiss, M. R., & Williams, L. (2004). The why of youth sport involvement: A developmental perspective on motivational processes. In M. R. Weiss (Ed.), Developmental sport and exercise psychology: A lifespan perspective (pp. 223-268). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology, Inc.

Downloads

Published

2019-03-12

Issue

Vol. 14 No. 1 (2019)

Section

Feature Articles

License

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

  1. The Author retains copyright in the Work, where the term “Work” shall include all digital objects that may result in subsequent electronic publication or distribution.
  2. Upon acceptance of the Work, the author shall grant to the Publisher the right of first publication of the Work.
  3. The Author shall grant to the Publisher and its agents the nonexclusive perpetual right and license to publish, archive, and make accessible the Work in whole or in part in all forms of media now or hereafter known under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License or its equivalent, which, for the avoidance of doubt, allows others to copy, distribute, and transmit the Work under the following conditions:
    1. Attribution—other users must attribute the Work in the manner specified by the author as indicated on the journal Web site;
    with the understanding that the above condition can be waived with permission from the Author and that where the Work or any of its elements is in the public domain under applicable law, that status is in no way affected by the license.
  4. The Author is able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the nonexclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the Work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), as long as there is provided in the document an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
  5. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post online a prepublication manuscript (but not the Publisher’s final formatted PDF version of the Work) in institutional repositories or on their Websites prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work. Any such posting made before acceptance and publication of the Work shall be updated upon publication to include a reference to the Publisher-assigned DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and a link to the online abstract for the final published Work in the Journal.
  6. Upon Publisher’s request, the Author agrees to furnish promptly to Publisher, at the Author’s own expense, written evidence of the permissions, licenses, and consents for use of third-party material included within the Work, except as determined by Publisher to be covered by the principles of Fair Use.
  7. The Author represents and warrants that:
    1. the Work is the Author’s original work;
    2. the Author has not transferred, and will not transfer, exclusive rights in the Work to any third party;
    3. the Work is not pending review or under consideration by another publisher;
    4. the Work has not previously been published;
    5. the Work contains no misrepresentation or infringement of the Work or property of other authors or third parties; and
    6. the Work contains no libel, invasion of privacy, or other unlawful matter.
  8. The Author agrees to indemnify and hold Publisher harmless from Author’s breach of the representations and warranties contained in Paragraph 6 above, as well as any claim or proceeding relating to Publisher’s use and publication of any content contained in the Work, including third-party content.

Revised 7/16/2018. Revision Description: Removed outdated link.