Youth Practitioners Can Counter Fascism: What We Know and What We Need

Authors

  • Miriam R. Arbeit Department of Psychology, Suffolk University https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4771-9330
  • Sarah L. F. Burnham Department of Psychology, Suffolk University
  • Duane de Four Higher Education Program, University of Massachusetts Boston
  • Heather Cronk Community Organizer

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2020.936

Keywords:

youth development, violence prevention, fascism, antifascism, social justice

Abstract

Fascist, White nationalist, and misogynist groups are actively recruiting adolescent followers both online and in person. Youth development practitioners can play an important role in mitigating the influence of fascist ideologies on young people’s behavior and reducing the proliferation of youth-perpetrated harassment and violence. In this paper, we present a theoretical integration that draws on empirical research from multiple disciplines and youth development best practices to examine how youth practitioners can counter fascist recruitment of youth. There is much that youth development researchers and practitioners already know and do, or have the capacity to learn and do, that can mitigate the threat of fascist recruitment and deter young people from developmental trajectories leading them towards harmful ideologies and actions. In order to support youth development practitioners in effectively embodying this potential, we detail 3 sets of activities: (a) immunizing youth to reduce susceptibility to fascist recruitment, (b) intervening in fascist recruitment of specific youth, and (c) counter-recruiting youth into community organizing for social justice. For each set of activities, we describe the goals of each component, propose concrete actions it may entail, and highlight existing research and best practices in the field that can be applied to this current challenge. We then propose next steps in research–practice integration to further improve relevant strategies and point to existing resources for supporting youth in resisting fascist recruitment.

Author Biography

Miriam R. Arbeit, Department of Psychology, Suffolk University

Assistant Professor, Psychology

References

Adams, M. & Bell, L. A. (Eds., with Goodman, D. J., & Joshi, K. Y.). (2016). Teaching for diversity and social justice. Routledge.

Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press.

Allen, K. (2014). Addressing the issue: Bullying and LGBTQ youth. Journal of Youth Development, 9(3), 40-46. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2014.49

Berbrier, M. (2000). The victim ideology of White supremacists and White separatists in the United States. Sociological Focus, 33(2), 175-191.

Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2006). A developmental intergroup theory of social stereotypes and prejudice. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 34, 39-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2407(06)80004-2

Blodgett, B. & Salter, A. (2018). Ghostbusters is for boys: Understanding geek masculinity’s role in the alt-right. Communication Culture & Critique, 11, 133-146. https://doi.org/10.1093/ccc/tcx003

Bray, M. (2017). Antifa: The anti-fascist handbook. Melville House.

Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429-444. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00126

Burley, S. (2017). Fascism today: What it is and how to end it. AK Press.

Burley, S. (2018a, February 22). Anti-fascist organizing explodes on US college campuses. Waging Nonviolence. https://wagingnonviolence.org/2018/02/antifascist-organizing-explodes-college-campuses

Burley, S. (2018b, November 21). Survivors confront far right’s #HimToo campaign in Portland. Truthout. https://truthout.org/articles/survivors-confront-far-rights-himtoo-campaign-in-portland/

Cargile, A. C. (2017). Social dominance orientation: A root of resistance to intercultural dialogue? International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 61, 40-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.09.003

Catalano, R. F., Fagan, A. A., Gavin, L. E., Greenberg, M. T., Irwin, C. E., Ross, D. A., & Shek, D. T. (2012). Worldwide application of prevention science in adolescent health. The Lancet, 379(9826), 1653-1664. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(12)60238-4

Chávez, V., Minkler, M., Wallerstein, N., & Spencer, M. S. (2007). Community organizing for health and social justice. In L. Cohen, S. Chehimi, & V. Chávez (Eds.), Prevention is primary: Strategies for community well-being. Wiley.

Chen, C.-P. (2016). Forming digital self and parasocial relationships on YouTube. Journal of Consumer Culture, 16(1), 232-254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469540514521081

Cohen, G. L., & Prinstein, M. J. (2006). Peer contagion of aggression and health risk behavior among adolescent males: An experimental investigation of effects on public conduct and private attitudes. Child Development, 77(4), 967-983. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00913.x

Combahee River Collective. (1977). Combahee River Collective statement: Black feminist organizing in the seventies and eighties. (Freedom Organizing Series). Combahee River Collective. https://combaheerivercollective.weebly.com/the-combahee-river-collective-statement.html

Cope, J., & Flanagan, R. (2013). Information literacy in the study of American politics: Using new media to teach information literacy in the political science classroom. Behavioral & Social Sciences Librarian, 32(1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639269.2013.750198

Cornelius, T. L., & Resseguie, N. (2007). Primary and secondary prevention programs for dating violence: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12(3), 364-375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.09.006

Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299.

Curry-Stevens, A. (2010). Journeying toward humility: Complexities in advancing pedagogy for the privileged. Reflections: Narratives of Professional Helping, 16(1), 61-72.

DiBranco, A. (Winter 2017). Mobilizing misogyny. (The Public Eye). Political Research Associates. https://www.politicalresearch.org/2017/03/08/mobilizing-misogyny

Duriez, B., & Soenens, B. (2009). The intergenerational transmission of racism: The role of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 906-909.

Duriez, B., Soenens, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2007). In search of the antecedents of adolescent authoritarianism: The relative contribution of parental goal promotion and parenting style dimensions. European Journal of Personality, 21(4), 507-527. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.623

Durlak, J. A. (2000). Health promotion as a strategy in primary prevention. In D. Cicchetti, J. Rappaport, I. Sandler, & R. P. Weissberg (Eds.), The Promotion of Wellness in Children and Adolescents (pp. 221-241). Child Welfare League of America.

Dvorak, P. (2019, August 15). White supremacists are recruiting white teens online. Parents must stop them. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/white-supremacists-are-recruiting-white-teens-online-parents-must-stop-them/2019/08/15/5169c192-bf69-11e9-b873-63ace636af08_story.html

Fagan, A. A., & Catalano, R. F. (2012). What works in youth violence prevention: A review of the literature. Research on Social Work Practice, 23(2), 141-156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731512465899

Flanagan, C. A. (2013). Teenage citizens: The political theories of the young. Harvard University Press.

Flood, M. (2011). Involving men in efforts to end violence against women. Men and masculinities, 14(3), 358-377. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184x10363995

Follman, M. (2019, June). Armed and misogynist: How toxic masculinity fuels mass shootings. Mother Jones. https://www.motherjones.com/crime-justice/2019/06/domestic-violence-misogyny-incels-mass-shootings/

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum.

Gable, S. L. (2006). Approach and avoidance: Social motives and goals. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 175-222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00373.x

Gable, S. L., & Impett, E. A. (2012). Approach and avoidance motives and close relationships. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(1), 95-108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00405.x

Gates, H. L. (2019). Stony the Road: Reconstruction, white supremacy, and the rise of Jim Crow. Penguin Books.

Gibson, C. (2019, September 17). ‘Do you have white teenage sons? Listen up.’ How white supremacists are recruiting boys online. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/on-parenting/do-you-have-white-teenage-sons-listen-up-how-white-supremacists-are-recruiting-boys-online/2019/09/17/f081e806-d3d5-11e9-9343-40db57cf6abd_story.html

Ging, D. (2017). Alphas, betas, and incels: Theorizing masculinities of the manosphere. Men and Masculinities, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X17706401

Ginwright, S. (2016). Hope and healing in urban education: How urban activists and teachers are reclaiming matters of the heart. Routledge.

Ginwright, S., & James, T. (2002). From assets to agents of change: Social justice, organizing, and youth development. New Directions for Youth Development, 2002(96), 27-46.

Gleason, T. R., Theran, S. A., & Newberg, E. M. (2017). Parasocial interactions and relationships in early adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00255

Gorcenski, E. (2018, October 28). The pittsburgh shooting proves Trump emboldens racists – & social media empowers them. Refinery29. https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2018/10/215302/pittsburgh-shooting-reason-white-supremacists-trump

Gorcenski, E. (February 28, 2019). The Proud Boys: A Republican party street gang. Political Research Associates. http://feature.politicalresearch.org/the-proud-boys

Graham, R. (2016). Inter-ideological mingling: White extremist ideology entering the mainstream on Twitter. Sociological Spectrum, 36(1), 24-36, https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2015.1075927

Griffith, A. N. & Larson, R. W. (2016). Why trust matters: How confidence in leaders transforms what adolescents gain from youth programs. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(4), 790-804.

Grill, J. H. & Jenkins, R. L. (1992). The Nazis and the American South in the 1930s: A mirror image? The Journal of Southern History, 58(4), 667-694. https://doi.org/10.2307/2210789

Hand, M. (2017, October 27). White supremacists rallying in Tennessee show solidarity with Trump’s immigration policies. ThinkProgress. https://archive.thinkprogress.org/white-supremacists-rallying-in-tennessee-show-solidarity-with-trumps-immigration-policies-da90b629348b/

Hankes, K., & Amend, A. (2018, February 5). The alt-right is killing people. Southern Poverty Law Center. https://www.splcenter.org/20180205/alt-right-killing-people

Harbin, M. B., Thurber, A. & Brandy, J. (2019). Teaching race, racism, and racial justice: Pedagogical principles and classroom strategies for course instructors. Race and Pedagogy Journal, 4(1), 1-37.

Hatewatch Staff. (2017, October 17). White nationalist flyering on American college campuses. Southern Poverty Law Center. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2017/10/17/white-nationalist-flyering-american-college-campuses

Helms, J. E. (1995). An update of Helm's White and people of color racial identity models. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural Counseling (pp. 181-198). Sage.

Horta Ribeiro, M. H., Ottoni, R., West, R., Almeida, V. A., & Meira, W. (2019). Auditing radicalization pathways on YouTube. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.08313

Huang, G. C., Unger, J. B., Soto, D., Fujimoto, K., Pentz, M. A., Jordan-Marsh, M., & Valente, T. W. (2014). Peer influences: The impact of online and offline friendship networks on adolescent smoking and alcohol use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54(5), 508-514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.07.001

Jain, S., Cohen, A. K., Kawashima-Ginsberg, K., Duarte, C. D. P., & Pope, A. (2019). Civic engagement among youth exposed to community violence: Directions for research and practice. Journal of Youth Development, 14(1), 24-47. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2019.596

Jeong, S. (2018). The Internet of Garbage. The Verge. https://cdn.vox-cdn.com/uploads/chorus_asset/file/12599893/The_Internet_of_Garbage.0.pdf

Jones, S. (2017, September 7). “Antifa isn’t a hobby or a fad”: A Q&A with Mark Bray. The New Republic. https://newrepublic.com/article/144723/antifa-isnt-hobby-fad-qa-mark-bray

Juodis, M., Starzomski, A., Porter, S., & Woodworth, M. (2014). A comparison of domestic and non-domestic homicides: Further evidence for distinct dynamics and heterogeneity of domestic homicide perpetrators. Journal of Family Violence, 29, 299-313.

Kahne, J. Middaugh, E. & Allen D. (2015). Youth, new media, and the rise of participatory politics. In D. Allen and J.S. Light (Eds.), From voice to influence: Understanding digital citizenship in a digital age (pp. 35-55). The University of Chicago Press.

Kellner, D., & Share, J. (2007). Critical media literacy, democracy, and the reconstruction of education. In D. Macedo & S.R. Steinberg (Eds.), Media literacy: A reader (pp. 3-23). Peter Lang Publishing.

Kendi, I. X. (2016). Stamped from the beginning: The definitive history of racist ideas in America. Bold Type Books.

Koc, M., & Barut, E. (2016). Development and validation of new media literacy scale (NMLS) for university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 834-843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.035

Kruse, S. D. & Rodela, K. C. (2019). When hate comes to campus: Campus readiness for conflict, safety, and student voice. Journal of Cases in Educational Leadership, 22(3), 85-97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555458919860241

Kumaran, M., Fogarty, K., Terminello, A. & Fung, W. M. (2014). The 4-H Health Rocks! Program in Florida: Outcomes on youth tobacco, alcohol, and other substance abuse prevention. Journal of Youth Development, 9(2), 65-76.

Lee, J. E., Culpepper, M., & Julien, R. (2013). Working toward peace: A holistic approach to addressing youth violence by Pleasant Hill Baptist Church. Journal of Youth Development, 8(2), 84-95. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2013.98

Leighninger, M. (2014, 2018 re-release). Infogagement: Citizenship and democracy in the age of connection. infogagement: citizenship and democracy in the age of connection (pp. 1-49). Philanthropy for Active Civic Engagement (PACE). http://www.pacefunders.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/2018-Infogagement-Re-Release.pdf

Lerner, J. V., Bowers, E. P., Minor, K., Boyd, M. J., Mueller, M. K., Schmid, K. L., Napolitano, C.M, Lewin-Baza, S., Lerner, R. M. (2012). Positive youth development: Processes, philosophies, and programs. In R. M. Lerner, M. A. Easterbrooks, J. Mistry, & I. B. Weiner (Eds.), Handbook of psychology, Vol 6: Developmental psychology (2nd ed., pp. 365-392). John Wiley & Sons.

Lerner, R. M. (2001). Promoting promotion in the development of prevention science, Applied Developmental Science, 5(4), 254-257. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0504_06

Lewis, R. (2018). Alternative Influence: Broadcasting the Reactionary Right on Youtube. (pp. 1-61). Data & Society.

Lorber, B. (2019, October 22). Taking aim at multiracial democracy. Political Research Associates. https://www.politicalresearch.org/2019/10/22/taking-aim-multiracial-democracy

Lyons, M. (2017). Ctrl-alt-delete: An antifascist report on the alternative right. Political Research Associates. https://www.politicalresearch.org/2017/01/20/ctrl-alt-delete-report-on-the-alternative-right

Lyons, M. N. (2018). Insurgent Supremacists: The U.S. Far Right’s Challenge to State and Empire. PM Press.

Maza, C. (2017, November 8). What to do when you accidentally book a white-supremacist band. Pacific Standard. https://psmag.com/social-justice/fighting-white-supremacist-bands

Murphy, P. P. (2019, September 25). MLS just walked back its ban of an anti-Nazi symbol at its soccer matches. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/25/sport/anti-nazi-mls-ban-trnd/index.html

Messner, M. A. (2016). Forks in the road of men’s gender politics: Men’s rights vs feminist allies. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 5(2), 6-20.

Mihailidis, P., & Thevenin, B. (2013). Media literacy as a core competency for engaged citizenship in participatory democracy. American Behavioral Scientist, 57(11), 1611-1622. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213489015

Mihailidis, P., & Viotty, S. (2017). Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: Civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in “post-fact” society. American Behavioral Scientist, 61(4), 441-454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764217701217

Nicotera, N., & Bassett, D. M. (2015). Building civic leadership: The journeys of pre-adolescent youth. Journal of Youth Development, 10(1), 19-33. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2015.417

O’Connell, M. E., Boat, T., & Warner, K. E. (Eds.). (2009). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. National Academies Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK32775/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK32775.pdf

Picciolini, C. (2017). White American youth: My descent into America’s most violent hate movement –– and how I got out. Hachette Books.

Prinstein, M. J., & Dodge, K. A. (Eds.). (2008). Understanding peer influence in children and adolescents. Guilford Press.

Prochaska, J. O., Redding, C. A., & Evers, K. E. (2015). The transtheoretical model and stages of change. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & K. Viswanath (Eds.), Health behavior: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 125-148). Jossey-Bass.

Quinlan, C. (2019, August 31). How ‘straight pride’ parades like the one in Boston mask a far-right agenda. ThinkProgress. https://archive.thinkprogress.org/boston-straight-pride-means-more-far-right-abuse-of-trans-people-a4ed06427125/

Riestenberg, N. (2008). Applying the framework: Positive youth development and restorative practices. Journal of Youth Development, 3(1), 113-122. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2008.324

Riley, A. (2019). Social and emotional learning in practice: A resource review. Journal of Youth Development, 14(3), 212-216. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2019.850

Ryoo, J. J., & Kekelis, L. (2018). Reframing “failure” in making: The value of play, social relationships, and ownership. Journal of Youth Development, 13(4), 49-67. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2018.624

Saleh, Z., Nakonechny, V., Denis, M. S., & Nichols, D. (2017). BLAST: A promising approach to service, ethics, and leadership development in rural Canada. Journal of Youth Development, 12(3), 50-62. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2017.451

Schaeffer, C. & Zimmermann, F. (2019, November 8). They are racist; Some of them have guns. Inside the white supremacist group hiding in plain sight. ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/they-are-racist-some-of-them-have-guns-inside-the-white-supremacist-group-hiding-in-plain-sight

Schroeder, J. [@iproposethis]. (2019, August 13). Do you have white teenage sons? Listen up. I’ve been watching my boys’ online behavior & noticed that social media and…[Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/iproposethis/status/1161130456286289920?lang=en

Smischney, T. M., Roberts, M. A., Gliske, K., Borden, L. M., & Perkins, D. F. (2018). Developing youth competencies: The impact of program quality. Journal of Youth Development, 13(4), 29-48. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2018.587

Southern Poverty Law Center. (2015, March 26). Stormfront: A history. Hatewatch. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2015/03/25/stormfront-history

Southern Poverty Law Center. (2017). White nationalists work to make inroads at U.S. colleges. Intelligence Report, 2017 Spring. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2017/white-nationalists-work-make-inroads-us-colleges

Southern Poverty Law Center. (n.d.). Male supremacy. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/male-supremacy

Stanford History Education Group. (2016). Evaluating information: The cornerstone of civic online reasoning. (pp. 1-29). Stanford History Education Group.

Sunshine, S., Campbell, J., Rural Organizing Project, Political Research Associates, HoSang, D., Besa, S., & Berlet, C. (2016). Up in arms: A guide to Oregon's patriot movement (pp. 1-188). Rural Organizing Project. https://rop.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Up-in-Arms_Report_PDF.pdf

Sunshine, S. (2017). Three pillars of the alt right: White nationalism, antisemitism, and misogyny. Political Research Associates. https://www.politicalresearch.org/2017/12/04/three-pillars-of-the-alt-right-white-nationalism-antisemitism-and-misogyny

Sutton, M., & Wright, C. (2009). Finding the far right online: An exploratory study of white supremacist websites. Internet Journal of Criminology, 1-24.

Thompson, A. C., Winston, A., & BondGraham, D. (2017, October 19). Racist, violent, unpunished: A White hate group’s campaign of menace. ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/white-hate-group-campaign-of-menace-rise-above-movement

Van Valkenburgh, S. P. (2018). Digesting the red pill: Masculinity and neoliberalism in the manosphere. Men and Masculinities, https://doi.org/1097184X18816118

Watts, R. J., Diemer, M. A., & Voight, A. M. (2011). Critical consciousness: Current status and future directions. In C. A. Flanagan & B. D. Christens (Eds.), Youth civic development: Work at the cutting edge. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 134, 43-57.

Ward, E. K. (2017, Summer). Skin in the game: How antisemitism animates white nationalism. The Public Eye, (91), 9-15. Political Research Associates. https://www.politicalresearch.org/sites/default/files/2018-10/PE_Summer2017_web.pdf

Yang, F., Tan, K.-A., & Cheng, W. J. Y. (2013). The effects of connectedness on health-promoting and health-compromising behaviors in adolescents: Evidence from a statewide survey. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 35(1), 33-46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-013-0327-y

Zimmer, T., Flaherty, B., Miranda, J., White, C., Juarez-Scruggs, J., & People's Action. (2018). "No one's ever asked me before": Conversation with North Carolina's rural communities. Down Home North Carolina. https://downhomenc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/dhnc-2018-report-FINAL.pdf

Downloads

Published

2020-09-22

Issue

Section

Feature Articles