After-School Connectedness, Racial–Ethnic Identity, Affirmation, and Problem Behaviors

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2022.1137

Keywords:

after-school connectedness, racial–ethnic affirmation, racial–ethnic identity, problem behaviors, African American children

Abstract

After-school programs are potential contexts that may promote positive youth development (PYD) and reduce problem behaviors among African American children. One way after-school programs may be associated with reduced problem behaviors is by fostering an affirming sense of identity. Prior research on racial–ethnic identity among African American children and adolescents has shown that a positive and affirming sense of identity is related to less maladaptive coping, yet little is known about how after-school programs may foster an affirming sense of identity and lead to reduced problem behaviors. The current study adds to this discourse by investigating how children’s connection to staff and peers in after-school settings is associated with racial–ethnic identity (as measured by racial–ethnic affirmation) and reduced problem behaviors. Participants were 186 African American children ages 7–11 (M = 8.44; SD = 1.10) who completed surveys in the LEGACY Together Afterschool research project. Data were collected at 55 community-based after-school programs. Results indicated that positive racial–ethnic affirmation mediated the association between after-school connectedness and problem behaviors, such that child-report of connectedness—that is feeling safe and happy in the after-school programs—was directly related to positive racial–ethnic identity and indirectly to reduced problem behaviors. These findings underscore the importance of supportive after-school programs that encourage meaningful interactions among staff and children that are nurturing and affirming to children’s identities.

References

Afterschool Alliance. (2021). America after 3pm for black families and communities. http://afterschoolalliance.org/documents/AA3PM-2020/AA3PM-Black-Communities-2020-Fact-Sheet.pdf

Akiva, T., Cortina, K. S., Eccles, J. S., & Smith, C. (2013). Youth belonging and cognitive engagement in organized activities: A large-scale field study. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 34, 208–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2013.05.011

Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., Hattie, J., & Waters, L. (2018). What schools need to know about fostering school belonging: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 30(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8

Anderson, R. E., & Stevenson, H. C. (2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. American Psychologist, 74(1), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000392

Balocchini, E., Chiamenti, G., & Lamborghini, A. (2013). Adolescents: Which risk for their life and health?. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene, 54(4), 191–194.

Barbarin, O. A., Tolan, P. H., Gaylord-Harden , N., & Murry, V. (2019): Promoting social justice for African-American boys and young men through research and intervention: A challenge for developmental science. Applied Developmental Science, 24(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2019.1702880

Belgrave, F. Z., Reed, M. C., Plybon, L. E., Butler, D. S., Allison, K. W., & Davis, T. (2004). An evaluation of Sisters of Nia: A cultural program for African American girls. Journal of Black Psychology, 30(3), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798404266063

Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y., Boyle, A. E., Polk, R., & Cheng, Y.-P. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73(7), 855-883. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000204

Bentley-Edwards, K. L., & Stevenson, H. C. (2016). The multidimensionality of racial/ethnic socialization: Scale construction for the cultural and racial experiences of socialization (CARES). Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(1), 96–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0214-7

Brittian Loyd, A. B., & Williams, B. V. (2017). The potential for youth programs to promote African American youth’s development of ethnic and racial identity. Child Development Perspectives, 11(1), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12204

Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). The Guildford Press.

Bulanda, J. J., & McCrea, K. T. (2013). The promise of an accumulation of care: Disadvantaged African-American youths’ perspectives about what makes an after school program meaningful. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 30(2), 95–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-012-0281-1

Byrd, C. M. (2017). The complexity of school racial climate: Reliability and validity of a new measure for secondary students. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(4), 700–721. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12179

Cama, S., & Sehgal, P. (2020). Racial and ethnic considerations across child and adolescent development. Academic Psychiatry, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-020-01354-2

Caughy, M. O. B., Nettles, S. M., & Lima, J. (2011). Profiles of racial socialization among African American parents: Correlates, context, and outcome. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(4), 491–502. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9416-1

Chen, P., & Jacobson, K. C. (2012). Developmental trajectories of substance use from early adolescence to young adulthood: Gender and racial/ethnic differences. Journal of adolescent health, 50(2), 154–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.05.013

Corneille, M. A., & Belgrave, F. Z. (2007). Ethnic identity, neighborhood risk, and adolscent drug and sex attitudes and refusal efficacy: The urban African American girls’ experience. Journal of Drug Education, 37, 177–190. https://doi.org/10.2190/UJ17-34J7-U306-2822

Durlak, J., & Weissberg, R. (2007). The impact of after-school programs that promote personal and social skills. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning.

Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., & Pachan, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of after-school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 294–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6

Eccles, J. S., & Gootman, J. A. (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. National Academy Press.

Fredricks, J. A., & Simpkins, S. D. (2012). Promoting positive youth development through organized after‐school activities: Taking a closer look at participation of ethnic minority youth. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 280–287.

Gabalda, M. K., Thompson, M. P., & Kaslow, N. J. (2010). Risk and protective factors for psychological adjustment among low-income, African American children. Journal of Family Issues, 31(4), 423–444. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X09348488

Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Barbarin, O., Tolan, P. H., & Murry, V. M. (2018). Understanding development of African American boys and young men: Moving from risks to positive youth development. American Psychologist, 73(6), 753–767. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000300

Gray, K. M., & Squeglia, L. M. (2018). Research Review: What have we learned about adolescent substance use?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(6), 618–627.

Haslam, S. A., & McGarty, C. (2004). Experimental design and causality in social psychological research. In C. Sansone, C. C. Morf, & A. T. Panter (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of methods in social psychology (pp. 237–264). SAGE Publications.

Hirschi, T. (2004). Self-control and crime. In Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (Eds.). Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications. Guilford Publications. 537–552.

Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ racial-ethnic socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.757

Hughes, D., Hagelskamp, C., Way, N., & Foust, M. D. (2009). The role of mothers’ and adolescents’ perceptions of ethnic-racial socialization in shaping ethnic-racial identity among early adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(5), 605–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9399-7

Johnson, D. J. (2022). Critical themes in parental socialization: The state of racial-ethnic and gender socialization. Research in Human Development, 19(1-2), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2022.2106757

Kataoka, S., & Vandell, D. L. (2013). Quality of afterschool activities and relative change in adolescent functioning over two years. Applied Developmental Science, 17(3), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2013.804375

Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guildford Press.

Kloos, A., Weller, R. A., Chan, R., & Weller, E. B. (2009). Gender differences in adolescent substance abuse. Current Psychiatry Reports, 11(2), 120–126.

Kremer, K. P., Maynard, B. R., Polanin, J. R., Vaughn, M. G., & Sarteschi, C. M. (2015). Effects of after-school programs with at-risk youth on attendance and externalizing behaviors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(3), 616–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0226-4

Kuperminc, G. P., Seitz, S., Josephn H., Khatib, N., Wilson, C., Collins, K., & Guessous, O. (2019). Enhancing program quality in a national sample of after-school settings: The role of youth-staff interactions and staff/organizational functioning. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63, 391–404. https://doi.org/10.1002/acjp.12329

Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J. B., Theokas, C., Phelps, E., Gestsdottir, S., Naudeau, S., Jelicic, H., Alberts, A., Ma, L., Smith, L. M., Bobek, D. L., Richman-Raphael, D., Simpson, I., Christiansen, E. D., & von Eye, A. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth-grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431604272461

Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Murry, V. M., Smith, E. P., Bowers, E. P., Geldhof, G. J., & Buckingham, M. H. (2021). Positive youth development in 2020: Theory, research, programs, and the promotion of social justice. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(4), 1114–1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12609

Little, R. J. A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198–1202.

Marcelo, A. K., & Yates, T. M. (2019). Young children’s ethnic-racial identity moderates the impact of early discrimination experiences on child behavior problems. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(2), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000220

McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., Kim, J.-Y., Burton, K. D., Dotterer, A. M., & Swanson, D. P. (2006). Mothers’ and fathers’ racial socialization in African American families: Implications for youth. Child Development, 77(5), 1387–1402. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00942.x

McIntosh, K., Reinke, W. M., Kelm, J. L., & Sadler, C. A. (2012). Gender differencs in reading skill and problem behavior in elementary school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 15(1), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300712459080

Miller, B. M. (2005). Pathways to success for youth: What counts in after-school. https://www.wcwonline.org/vmfiles/MARSReport.pdf

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1988–2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.

Neblett Jr, E. W., Rivas‐Drake, D., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2012). The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child development perspectives, 6(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.x

Niehaus, K., Rudasill, K. M., & Rakes, C. R. (2012). A longitudinal study of school connectedness and academic outcomes across sixth grade. Journal of School Psychology, 50, 443–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2012.03.002

Opara, I., Rodas, E. I. R., Garcia-Reid, P., & Reid, R. J. (2020). Ethnic identity, empowerment, social support and sexual risk behaviors among Black adolescent girls: Examining drug use as a mediator. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-020-00706-z

Phal, K., & Way, N. (2006). Longitudinal trajectories of ethnic identity among urban Black and Latino adolescents. Child Development, 77(5), 1403–1415.

Phinney, J. S. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176.

Phinney, J. S., & Landin, J. (1998). Research paradigms for studying ethnic minority families within and across groups. In V.C. McLoyd & L. Steinberg, Studying minority adolescents (pp. 99–120). Psychology Press.

Quintana, S. M. (2007). Racial and ethnic identity: Developmental perspectives and research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 259–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.259

Quintana, S. M. (2008). Racial perspective taking ability: Developmental, theorectical, and empirical trends. In S. M. Quintana & C. McKnown (Eds.), Handbook of race, racism, and the developing child (pp. 16–36). John Wiley & Sons.

Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., et al. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. Journal of American Medical Association, 278(10), 823–832. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.278.10.823

Riggs, N. R., Bohnert, A. M., Guzman, M. D., & Davidson, D. (2010). Examining the potential of community-based after-school programs for Latino youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 417–429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9313-1

Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C. A., Quintana, S. M., Syed, M., Lee, R. M., Schwartz, S. J., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., French, S., Yip, T., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: Implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes. Child Development, 85(1), 40–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12200

Rivas-Drake, D., Syed, M., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Markstrom, C., French, S., Schwartz, S. J., Lee, R., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014). Feeling good, happy, and proud: A meta-analysis of positive racial effect and adjustment. Child Development, 85(1), 77–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12175

Russo, J. F., Stokes, G. S., Lahey, B. B., Christ, J., McBurnett, K., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Green, S. M. (1993). A sensation seeking scale for children: Further refinement and psychometric development. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 15(2), 145–157.

Simpkins, S. D. (2015). When and how does participating in an organized after-school activity matter? Applied Developmental Science, 19(3), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2015.1056344

Simpkins, S. D., Riggs, N. R., Ngo, B., Ettekal, A. V., & Okamoto, D. (2017). Designing culturally responsive organized after-school activities. Journal of Adolescent Research, 32(1), 11–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558416666169

Sladek, M.R., Umaña-Taylor, A.J., Wantchekon, K.A., McDermott, E. R., & Updegraff, K. A. (2021). Contextual moderators of a school-based ethnic-racial identity intervention: The roles of family ethnic socialization and ethnic-racial background. Prevention Science, 22, 378–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-020-01166-8

Smith, C. O., Levine, D. W., Smith, E. P., Dumas, J., & Prinz, R. J. (2009). A developmental perspective of the relationship of racial-ethnic identity to self-construct, achievement, and behavior in African American children. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015538

Smith, E. P., Atkins, J., & Connell, C. M. (2003). Family, school, and community factors and relationships to racial–ethnic attitudes and academic achievement. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32(1–2), 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025663311100

Smith, E. P., Osgood, D. W., Caldwell, C. H., Hynes, K., & Perkins, D. F. (2013). Measuring collective efficacy among children in community-based afterschool programs: Exploring pathways toward prevention and positive youth development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 52, 27–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9574-6

Smith, E. P., Osgood, D. W., Oh, Y., and Caldwell, L., (2018). Promoting afterschool quality and positive youth development: Cluster randomized trial of the pax good behavior game. Prevention Science,19 (2), pp 159–173, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0820-2

Smith, E. P., Witherspoon, D. P., Bhargava, S., & Bermudez, J. M. (2019). Cultural values and behavior among African American and European American children. Journal of child and family studies, 28(5), 1236–1249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01367-y

Smith‐Bynum, M. A., Anderson, R. E., Davis, B. L., Franco, M. G., & English, D. (2016). Observed racial socialization and maternal positive emotions in African American mother–adolescent discussions about racial discrimination. Child Development, 87(6), 1926–1939. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12562

Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 817–833.

Spencer, M. B., Harpalani, V., & Dell’Angelo, T. (2002). Structural racism and community health: A theory-driven model for identity intervention. In W. R. Allen, M. B. Spencer, & C. O’Connor (Eds.), African American education: Race, community, inequality, and achievement to a tribute to Edgar G. Epps (pp. 259–282). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Tebes, J. K., Feinn, R., Vanderploeg, J. J., Chinman. M.J., Shepard, J., Brabham, T., Genovese, M., & Connell, C. (2007). Impact of a positive youth development program in urban after-school settings on the prevention of adolescent substance use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 239–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.02.016

Thomas, A. J., & Speight, S. L. (1999). Racial identity and racial socialization attitudes of African American parents. Journal of Black psychology, 25(2), 152–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798499025002002

Tseng, V., & Seidman, E. (2007). A systems framework for understanding social settings. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39(3), 217–228.

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., Syed, S., Yip, T., Seaton, E., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196

Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Hill, N. E. (2020). Ethnic-racial socialization the family: A decade’s advance on precursors and outcomes. Journal of Marriage & Family, 82, 244–271. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12622

Vandell, D. L., Lee, K. T., Whitaker, A. A., & Pierce, K. M. (2020). Cumulative and differential effects of early child care and middle childhood out‐of‐school time on adolescent functioning. Child Development, 91(1), 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13136

Vandell, D. L., Simpkins, S. D., Pierce, K. M., Brown, B. B., Bolt, D., & Reisner, E. (2020). Afterschool programs, extracurricular activities, and unsupervised time: Are patterns of participation linked to children's academic and social well-being?. Applied Developmental Science, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2020.1843460

Vandell, D. L., Reisner, E. R., & Pierce, K. M. (2007). Outcomes linked to high-quality afterschool programs: Longitudinal findings from the study of promsing afterschool programs. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED499113.pdf

Wade, J. C., & Rochlen, A. B. (2013). Introduction: Masculinity, identity, and the health and well-being of African American youth. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029612

Wang, Z., & Cheng, Z. (2020). Cross-sectional studies: Strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations. Chest, 158(1), S65–S71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012

Walters, G. D. (2020). Prosocial peers as risk, protective, and promotive factors for the prevention of delinquency and drug use. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 49, 618–630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01058-3

Williams, J. L., & Deutsch, N. L. (2016). Beyond between-group differences: Considering race, ethnicity, and culture in research on positive youth development programs. Applied Developmental Science, 20(3), 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2015.1113880

Wills, T. A., Murry, C. M., Brody, G. H., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrad, M., Walker, C., & Ainette, M. G. (2007). Ethnic pride and self-control related to protective and risk factors: Test of the theorectical model for the Strong African American families program. Health Psychology, 26(1), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.26.1.50

Witherspoon, D. P., Daniels, L. L., Mason, A. E., & Smith, E. P. (2016). Racial-ethnic identity in context: Examining mediation of neighborhood factors on children’s academic adjustment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 57(1-2), 87-101. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12019

Woodland, M. H. (2016). After-school programs: A resource for young Black males and other urban youth. Urban Education, 51(7), 770–796. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085914549361

Yu, D., Smith, E. P., & Oshri, A. (2021). Exploring racial-ethnic pride and perceived barriers in positive youth development: A latent profile analysis. Applied Developmental Science, 25(4), 332–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2019.1640607

Zapolski, T. C., Fisher, S., Banks, D. E., Hensel, D. J., & Barnes-Najor, J. (2017). Examining the protective effect of ethnic identity on drug attitudes and use among a diverse youth population. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 46, 1702–1715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0605-0

Downloads

Published

2022-12-15

Issue

Section

Research & Evaluation Studies