A Positive Youth Development Approach to College and Career Readiness

Pathways to Your Future is a college and career readiness program for youth in Grades 9 through 12. The program’s curriculum provides youth with resources and opportunities to develop knowledge and learn skills that help them align their sparks with potential careers, while exploring various pathways to enter the workforce. The family component includes a pre-program orientation, a financing and budgeting Journal of Youth Development | http://jyd.pitt.edu/ | Vol. 16 Issue 1 DOI 10.5195/jyd.2021.966 College and Career Readiness 75 workshop, and take-home materials. Latino students made up 71% of the study participants. Retrospective preand post-program surveys were administered to youth and parents/guardians. Results indicated that the program equipped youth participants with the knowledge and skills to plan and manage their education and career goals, prepared them for a successful post-secondary educational experience and/or entry into the workforce, and increased the number of participants who planned to attend a post-secondary institution. Few gender differences were found. Findings suggest the program increased participating parents’ knowledge, skills, and involvement in their children’s college and career aspirations and plans. The results pointed to the importance of a holistic approach to college and career readiness that involves the youth and their parents nested in a positive youth development model.


Introduction and Background
There is a need to help youth prepare for college and careers. Statistics reveal that approximately 65% of current jobs require some post-secondary education, with more than 40% requiring an associate's degree or higher (Carnevale et al., 2013). That figure has increased over 132% in the last 30 years and is projected to rise further over the next decade (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). However, less than 45% of high school students report feeling positive about their college and career readiness (YouthTruth Student Survey, 2016).
Specifically, students indicated their schools had not helped them understand steps needed to apply for college (55%), identify careers that matched their interests/abilities (46%), or understand how to pursue careers of interest (55%). These statistics are underscored by estimates that approximately 4.4 million youth aged 16 to 24 are not involved in either school or the workforce, with higher rates among youth of color (Campaign for Youth, 2016; Lewis, 2020;Opportunity Nation, n.d.). The estimated lifetime cost to society for each disconnected and unprepared 16-year-old is over $1,000,000 (Campaign for Youth, 2016).
Recent statistics indicate that 41% of young people aged 18 to 24 are enrolled in 2-or 4-year colleges or universities. Enrollment rates for White youth are higher (42%) than Latinos (36%) (Snyder et al., 2019). However, for young people who attend college, only 46% graduate (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2016), with rates among Latino youth lower than Whites (Snyder et al., 2019). To help young people advance to and succeed in post-secondary education and compete for jobs in the 21 st century, their college and career readiness must be improved.
Researchers have articulated broad definitions of college and career readiness. For example, Hooker and Brand (2009) defined it as "being prepared to successfully complete credit-bearing college coursework or industry certification or enter the workforce without remediation, having the academic and non-cognitive skills and personal resources necessary to persist and progress in post-secondary education or the workforce, and having identified career goals and the necessary steps to achieve them" (p. x). Additionally, several reports and frameworks identify specific knowledge and skills required for post-secondary education and workforce success (e.g., Conley, 2007;Hamrick & Stage, 2004;Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education, n.d.;Perna & Titus, 2005). Common to these frameworks is a recognition of pre-college academic preparatory experiences for developing necessary knowledge and skills, including • identifying interests congruent with college majors • matching educational plans with career requirements • career exploration • identifying institutions that are a good fit • understanding financial options to help cover costs • developing realistic goals • developing non-cognitive skills (e.g., self-discipline, persistence, critical thinking, decision-making, problem solving, leadership/teamwork, communication skills, interpersonal skills, responsibility, and organization) Parents and guardians also play important roles in youths' college and career readiness. Factors that help promote success include parental expectations and involvement; supporting and assisting youth in college selection; and, understanding processes needed to apply for college and financial aid (e.g., Hamrick & Stage, 2004;Leonard, 2013;Perna & Titus, 2005). For many youth and families, particularly among low income and minority populations, the cost of college can be an impediment (Hamrick & Stage, 2004;National Center for Education Statistics, 2017a, 2017bPew Research Center, 2009). Programs that include a focus on financial planning and applying for financial aid can increase parents' and guardians' knowledge about and confidence in utilizing available resources (Fann et al., 2009).
Previously, college and career readiness programs have focused primarily on what youth need to know and do, but have not included parents or guardians; additionally, these programs were designed principally for use in school-based settings (e.g., College Going Culture, College Ed, and College U). However, the emerging importance of non-cognitive skills for youths' success in college and their future careers highlights an opportunity for a positive youth development (PYD) approach to college and career readiness programming. Positive youth development programs, common in out-of-school time (OST) settings, use an asset-based approach to learning (Interagency Working Group on Youth Programs, 2014). They place an emphasis on developing non-cognitive skills (e.g., Arnold & Gagnon, 2019;Arnold & Gandy, 2019;Bates et al., 2019;Fitzpatrick et al., 2005), and help shape knowledge of college and career opportunities and aspirations (Bates et al., 2019;Williams et al., 2010).
Several PYD frameworks exist (see Arnold & Silliman, 2017), each with a slightly different theory of change and expected outcomes that link to the Hooker and Brand (2009) definition of college and career readiness. For example, the UC 4-H youth development program framework (Dogan et al., n.d.) outlines youth organizational, youth development, and educational practices that lead to positive youth development outcomes, including improved academic performance and workforce preparedness. This framework encompasses research on supports and opportunities for youth (Gambone et al., 2002), youth thriving (e.g., Arnold, 2018;Lerner et al., 2003), and essential elements (Kress, 2005); it also embeds recent developments on the role of sparks Scales et al., 2011), growth mindset (Dweck, 2017), goal management (Gestsdóttir et al., 2009), and self-reflection (Dewey, 1910(Dewey, , 1916Kolb et al., 2001) as mechanisms for skills development. Importantly, the pedagogical strategies of experiential learning and guided inquiry are embedded in the process. Experiential learning is a cyclical process where youth engage in an experience, reflect and construct meaning, and apply their learning in a novel situation (Kolb, 1984). Guided inquiry helps youth build understanding through active exploration and questioning (Colburn, 2000). Learning is facilitated by educators through strategies such as open-ended questioning.
There is a need and opportunity for a holistic approach to college and career readiness that involves youth and their parent(s)/guardian(s), is nested in a PYD model, and is designed for use in schools and OST programs. Further, programs that demonstrate effectiveness among Latino youth and address some of the inequalities related to youth disconnection, college enrollment, and college completion are needed.

Program Description
Pathways to Your Future (Horrillo et al., 2020) is a 4-H program that builds upon prior research and helps participating youth (Grades 9 to 12) and their families develop the supports, knowledge, and skills identified as necessary for college and career readiness. The program's primary focus is on preparing youth for a successful post-secondary educational experience-at 4-year institutions, community colleges, technical or vocational schools, certificate programs, or on-the-job training-that is aligned with their interests and needs. Specifically, the Pathways to Your Future program aims to (a) equip participants with the knowledge, skills, and resources needed for college and career readiness; (b) prepare youth to identify an educational and/or career path based on their interests or "sparks"; and (c) increase the number of young people who attend a post-secondary institution.
The Pathways to Your Future program was designed for use in school settings and OST programs. The program is based on the University of California 4-H Positive Youth Development Framework (Dogan et al., n.d.). Of primary importance, curriculum activities include experiences with intentional applications of new knowledge and skills to the lives of the participants.
The Pathways to Your Future program includes a youth curriculum and a family component.
The curriculum was developed using backward design (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) and comprises five modules. Each module has specific learning objectives focused on the acquired knowledge and skills necessary for college and career success (see Table 1). The modules are organized sequentially whereby subsequent learning experiences build upon previous ones to help maximize learning outcomes (Smith et al., 2017). Additionally, each module includes targeted life skills (Hendricks, 1998), and the content is aligned to the Career and Technical Education Standards for Career Ready Practice (California Department of Education, 2019). Furthermore, the curriculum includes Tips for Teens designed to help support and empower youth to engage in conversations with their parents on topics from the program.
The family component was based on the Latino cultural value of familismo (Schwartz, 2009), which often plays a critical role in youths' college and career decisions (Martinez, 2013;Witkowsky et al., 2018). Informal interviews with youth and parents helped guide its development (Erbstein & Fabionar, 2019). This curriculum component's content focuses on helping build family members' knowledge and skills in areas that promote college and career readiness. The family component is available in English and Spanish and includes • a parent letter and pre-program orientation to introduce the whole family (parents/guardians and youth) to the program; • parent informational handouts for youth to take home after each youth curriculum module. Handouts help increase parent's knowledge of each module's content and provide tips for providing support to their child; and • the Myth Buster: Financing and Budgeting for College and Beyond Family Workshop, which is an opportunity for the whole family to develop skills to help finance and plan for college; identify financial aid options; and develop a college budget.
Parents/guardians are also encouraged to attend the college tour(s) and the Final Destination Celebration at the end of the Pathways to Your Future program to recognize their youth's journey and accomplishments.

Module Focus
Module 1 Emphasizes the identification of individual passions and goals ("sparks") for education and careers after high school. Youth begin to identify their unique pathway to reach their postsecondary education and career goals.
Module 2 Youth explore career options, research possible careers that are connected to their interests, and identify related majors, campuses, and admissions requirements. Youth learn and utilize a proven goal-setting and management model to help them achieve their goals (Gestsdóttir et al. 2009).

Module 3
Youth continue developing their goal management skills, practice applying a growth mindset in the face of obstacles (Dweck, 2017). Youth deepen their understanding of college admissions requirements, how to select a college that is a good fit, and attend a campus tour.
Module 4 Youth reflect upon their campus tours and apply principles of grit (Duckworth, 2016) to overcome challenges to meeting long-term goals. Youth narrow down colleges of interest and compare admissions requirements, application processes, costs, and financial assistance available.
Module 5 Youth explore costs of attending post-secondary education and financial options to help pay for post-secondary education. Youth reflect on the program and celebrate their achievements and hard work during the program.

Sample
The Pathways to Your Future program was implemented with 228 high school youth. Eighty five percent of the participants were in ninth grade. Males made up 52% of the sample. Study participants included 71% who identified as Latino, 10% as Asian, 10% as White, 2% as Native American, 1% as African American, and 6% as more than one race. Approximately 75% of the participants lived in towns or cities with populations of 10,000 to 50,000. Youth were recruited through three county-based 4-H programs representing different regions in California: southern, central, and northern. In the southern region, youth were recruited from Juntos, which is a program for Latino students. In the central and northern regions, students in high school classrooms were recruited.

Program Implementation
The Pathways to Your Future program was implemented at three sites over a 10-week period.
Details of the program implementation are shown in Table 2. In central California, the Pathways to Your Future program was implemented as part of a mandatory freshman seminar focused on college and career readiness. Those youth also participated in a job shadow program, and most youth were participating in AVID (Advancement Via Individual Determination) at their school. The northern region site offered the program as part of the school's career and technical education (CTE) Agri-science Pathway.
Youth in the southern region were also participating in Juntos, which is designed to help Latino students graduate from high school and gain access to college.

Data Collection
All procedures were approved by the UC Davis Institutional Review Board (IRB #1342586-4).
Quantitative data from youth participants were collected using retrospective surveys. Each site administered the survey as a hard-copy, paper/pencil instrument. A retrospective survey design was used to help minimize the possibility of a response-shift bias, a threat to internal validity (Campbell & Stanley, 1963;Raidl et al., 2004). The youth survey was available in English and Spanish. All youth were proficient in both languages and, therefore, surveys were administered in English. Only data from youth where parent consent and youth assent were received are included in the study.
Parents were also surveyed to assess how they support youth with their post-high school education and career plans. Retrospective surveys were administered to parents using a paper/pencil format during the end-of-program celebration. For parents unable to attend, surveys were sent home and returned to the program facilitator. The parent survey was available in English and Spanish. The site located in Northern California did not administer parent surveys. Only data from parents that consented to participate in the study are included in the results.

Results
The percent of respondents in each response category for all survey items on the College and Career Readiness Measure is shown in Table 3, along with pre-and post-program tests of statistical significance. There were significant differences on all survey items related to college and career decision-making, with the exception of completing a FAFSA and attending a campus tour. These findings were not unexpected given most of the participants were in ninth grade and not yet completing FAFSA forms, and over 75% of the participants at pretest had already gone on a campus tour. The latter reflects that the majority of youth from the central region site completed a campus tour as part of the AVID program and a few of the youth recruited from the Juntos program had done a tour as well.
Notably, there was a statistically significant difference (p < .001) in the percentage of young people reporting they had a better idea of what they might do after high school after participating in the program (65.2%) compared to before the program (35.1%). Results indicated there was a significant difference (p < .001) between the number of youth exploring career options before (19.7%) and after (64.7%) the program. Additionally, approximately 60% of youth responded that they had learned about post-high school education options that might be a good fit for them, whereas one-quarter of youth responded that they had done so prior to participating in the program (p < .001). Furthermore, there were statistically significant differences in researching post-high school education career options, knowing a major they might pursue, learning about scholarships and the post-high school application process, and knowledge of the importance and level of post-high school education they will need to pursue a desired career.
There were some differences between males and females in their responses before and after participation in the program (see Tables 4 and 5). Males were significantly more likely to report they researched options for post-high school education after the program, z = 2.19, p = .029; however, the effect size was small (h = .37). At pretest, there were no significant differences between males and females. Females were more likely to report they need "a lot" of education in the future as compared to males at the end of the program, z = 2.15, p = .032. This effect size was small (h = .35). There were no significant gender differences at pretest. A significant gender difference was also found when reporting on the importance of having a career where they can make a difference in the lives of others, with significantly more females responding "important" than males at the end of the program, z = 4.49, p < .001. However, it should be noted that females (63.9%) were also significantly more likely to indicate that having a career where they can make a difference in the lives of others was important to them than males (27.3%) prior to beginning the program. No other significant gender differences were found.     Youth were asked to respond to additional survey items to further examine how the Pathways to Your Future program prepared them for post-high school education and careers. Results are presented in Table 6. Of importance, youth reported being able to connect their academic and career aspirations to their sparks (before program, M = 3.10, SD = 1.09; after program, M = 3.70, SD = .98, t(208) = -11.02, p < .001) and identified their pathway to post-high school education (before program, M = 2.67, SD = 1.18 after program, M = 3.31, SD = 1.11, t(207) = -11.14, p < .001). The data also revealed statistically significant differences in youths' understanding of how to set and manage their goals, prepare for post-high school education, navigate the admissions process, prepare to apply for post-high school education, and pursue additional education after high school as a result of participating in the program. Results by gender are reported in Table 7 and Table 8. Mixed between-within subjects analyses indicated that males and females differed in their understanding of the types of financial assistance available to pay for post-high school education, F (1, 143) = 5.00, p = .03, η p 2 = .034. Although significant, the partial eta squared indicated that the difference was small. No significant gender differences were found for the other items.  Note. Response options: 1 (not true at all), 2 (not so true), 3 (somewhat true), 4 (true), 5 (very true). Table 9 provides results of life skill development (also known as non-cognitive skills) from participation in the Pathways to Your Future program. Findings from paired t-tests indicated significant increases in each life skill. Note. Response options: 1 (poor), 2 (fair), 3 (good), 4 (excellent).
Tables 10 and 11 show results for life skill development for males and females, respectively.
Although significant, the partial eta squared indicates the differences were small.  Parent surveys focused on how they supported their teen regarding college and career readiness. However, due to the small sample size (n = 29) analyses could not be conducted to examine pre-post differences. The descriptive statistics and percentage of parents who responded agree or strongly agree to each survey item are shown in Table 12. Overall, there was a trend toward mean increases and an increased number of parents who agreed or strongly agreed with each item after program participation. For example, 86.2% of parents reported that after participating in the program they agreed or strongly agreed that they talk to their teen about setting goals for career aspirations compared to 62.0% before participating in the program. Over 86% of parents also agreed or strongly agreed to being able to help their teen keep a positive outlook on their goals even when facing a challenge after participating in the program compared to 65.5% before. Additionally, parents reported they were more likely to encourage their teen to make modifications to their post-high school plans when necessary (79.3%) compared to before the program (65.5%).

Discussion
Findings from this investigation indicated that the Pathways to Your Future program positively and significantly affected participating youths' college and career readiness. The program helped equip young people with the knowledge and skills to plan and manage their education and careers, including the steps needed to apply for college, pursue their career interests, and investigate available financial assistance; helped the youth identify an educational and/or career path based on their interests or "sparks"; and increased the number of participants who plan to attend a post-secondary institution. Few gender differences in youth responses were found. As Previous research clearly articulates the importance of parental involvement in their children's decisions to attend college and their career choices (Leonard, 2013, Perna & Titus, 2005. Although data were limited, findings from the Pathways to Your Future program were promising and suggested that parents' knowledge and skills in how support their children in pursuing their college and career goals, as well as involvement in their children's college and career aspirations and plans increased as a result of the program. Parents were also less concerned with how their teen's post-high school education will be paid for after participation in the program, even though "affordability" has been shown to be a key barrier to attending college (Hamrick & Stage, 2004).
In order to scale the Pathways to Your Future program through 4-H and with partner programs, three professional development options were designed to help meet the needs of participating educators: (a) one full-day, in-person workshop; (b) three half-day, in-person workshops; and (c) three 3-hour virtual workshops (synchronous; webinar).
All three professional development options introduce participating educators to the general concepts and methods necessary to implement the curriculum, such as • an introduction to the 4-H Youth Development Program • an introduction to college and career readiness • pedagogical approaches emphasized in the Pathways to Your Future curriculum activities • facilitation strategies • engaging in reflective practice • Pathways to Your Future curriculum overview, activity modeling, and practice implementation

Limitations of Current Research
Our study had two main limitations. Despite the efforts made by staff to engage parents, it was challenging to get parents to attend workshops during regular school hours. To offset this limitation staff sent a welcome letter home at the beginning of the program and students took home program information for parents to read after each session. Parent surveys were also sent home by youth, but few were returned to the program facilitator. As such, additional studies involving parents will allow for a more comprehensive evaluation of parent knowledge, skills, and involvement on youth's college and career readiness, as well as any gender differences in these associations.
The second limitation is that the program was implemented in school classrooms and afterschool clubs as part of existing college and career readiness efforts. Further research is needed to assess its effectiveness in different settings, such as community-based clubs, camps, or other types of OST opportunities, and using a quasi-experimental or experimental design.
Finally, it should be noted that all data were based on self-report. Future studies should track youth over time to see if they attend and complete post-secondary education and/or begin the pathway to secure employment.

Conclusion
This study provides preliminary evidence that Pathways to Your Future was effective at developing college and career readiness among high school-aged youth in this predominately Latino sample. The results point to the importance of a holistic approach to college and career readiness that involves the youth and their parents/guardians nested in a positive youth development model.